FINALLY 4 REAL
A Readers Digest 4 Part Essay & Explorative Theory of Technology & Self Determination
LC Warren & M Derfoufi
We Have Put Together Its 4 Real a 4 Part Essay for You All for Education of Next Generations
1st Mobile Technology 2nd The Internet 3rd Inventing & 4th Self-Determination
We hope you enjoy 4 Theory of Technology & Modern Life. It’s a great theory if you plan to have any career in the helping industry (e.g., counselor, coach, teacher, healthcare professional), and it’s also a great theory to understand regardless.
Although this theory has the impressive ability to predict outcomes of technology & behavior based on trends & motivations for behavior (at least in part), the real value for the individual comes in the form of understanding the self better. When we know our core values and the intrinsic goals aligned with those values, we may be happier.
This may even help people make better choices that satisfy their own needs rather than strive towards extrinsic goals.
If you take one thing away from 4, let it be that you—like all people—are fully capable of making choices and finding your own way. As long as you pursue goals guided by your authentic values and desires, you have a great chance of success.
What do you think about self-determination theory? Do you think intrinsic motivation is always more effective than extrinsic motivation? Which do you find drives you more?
Yours Sincerely
Miss Laura Warren Director
Mr Marouane Derfoufi Content Developer
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WE BEGIN WITH THE TYPEWRITER A HERMES 3000
THE TYPE WRITER by Leroy Anderson Ah Old Age Word Processing
From 1st 1973 Mobile Phones to 2020 Smartphone Apps from PC MACs of 1970's Computing Power is Not Everyones Cup of Tea
WE PUT THE POWER IN YOUR POCKETS From The 'Sidehustles"
The Internet Has Not Reached its Full Potential Forget Metaverse
META Is Just VR Virtual Reality 'READY PLAYER ONE' By Spielberg
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Remember THE INTERNET 1st Read 'How To Make Money Online'
There's Building Websites Offering Many Products Goods & Services
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CONNECTED COMMUNITY in 5 Parts by Mr Marouane Derfoufi Esq
1 Leading Men & Women of HM Government Get Public On Message
2 Digital Commerce Solve Supply Demand with 'Fulfilment Centers'
3 Innovation - The Sun Never Sets on Innovative Solutions
4 Empowered Citizens - Engaged Citizens Wealth Health & Education
5 Big Data Analysis Right Information Right People Right Time
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JUST INVENT - Let’s take a look at modern invention process:
Do you see a need? Do you see a problem? Do you have an outrageous idea? Perhaps you have come up with a simple idea that you cannot believe no one else has thought of yet? You too can embark on an amazing adventure. Solve a need, fix a problem, revolutionize an industry. You can delight the world. You can change the world. You can make a difference.
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Oscars Sunday Photo Credit: Tom Hanks Hermes 3000 Typewriter
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Document (1)
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A Brief History of 'Mobile Phones'
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The History of the Cell Phone 1st as a Tool of Freemarkets
We all use them in our daily lives. Some of us wouldn’t be able to live without them. Cellphones provide us with the ability to contact anyone at any time. They also have developed to become portable search engines literally providing us with knowledge in an instant.
Many of us have seen them develop, getting smaller with each year, and now slowly getting bigger. But how many of you know the actual history of the cellphone.
In 1917 Eric Tigerstedt actually applied for a patent on “pocket sized telephone,” however, the first cellphone wasn’t actually produced until 1973. Motorola produced the first mobile phone, that wasn’t exactly mobile. These first cellphones only allowed phone calls and were not equipped to do anything else.
At 1st We Loved Our Gadgets
The original Motorola DynaTac supposedly took 10 hours to charge for a mere 30 minutes of talking time. The phone cost around 4,000 dollars, an extremely luxurious item. During the 80’s this model began to be commercially produced and in the next few years they improved the model with minor adjustments.
IBM Simon
Photo: Android Authority
It wasn’t until the 90’s that developers started to release a 2nd generation of mobile phones. In 1992 the IBM Simon was released, this phone is considered the first ever smartphone. The phone acted more as a planner with the added ability to make phone calls. You could create task lists and store contacts, but that was all that Simon could handle. This hand held device retailed at around $900 and sold close to 50,000 units. Simon essentially paved the way for many smartphones to come.
Mobile Phone Evolution from Nokia & Motorola
The 90’s also began the era that portability became important. Nokia, one of the biggest cellphone manufacturers in the 90’s and early 2000’s really worked on slimming down mobile phones to make them more user friendly. Once we entered the 2000’s cell phones began to become more accessible to everyone.
Original Blackberry 2003/2004
Blackberry has been around since the late 90’s, but they finally became a household name around 2003. The Blackberry introduced email and internet to mobile devices, paving the way for smartphones.
Original iPhone 2007
There have been many phones in between the blackberry and the iPhone. Love Apple or hate them they have produced one of the most iconic phones to exist. In 2007, Steve Jobs announced the first iPhone that would cost between $500-600. This announcement marked the beginning of a series of developments that led us to the much bigger and slimmer touch screen phones.
Cellphones have come a long since their early developments. The original cellphone acted as a Walkie Talkie and only allowed phone calls, over the years we’ve developed phones to include much more than the ability to make a call. Now, many of us use smartphones in our daily lives to communicate with our friends and family and they’ve become much more accessible than their ancestors.
2010 Apps - Start of The Killer Apps - The Apps Do The Killing
2020's - Start of 'Personal Broadcasting' - Its All About YOU!
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Document (2)
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A Brief History of the Internet
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Read about the history of the internet, from its 1950s origins to the World Wide Web’s explosion in popularity in the late 1990s and the ‘dotcom bubble’.
THE ORIGINS OF THE INTERNET
The origins of the internet are rooted in the USA of the 1950s. The Cold War was at its height and huge tensions existed between North America and the Soviet Union. Both superpowers were in possession of deadly nuclear weapons, and people lived in fear of long-range surprise attacks. The US realised it needed a communications system that could not be affected by a Soviet nuclear attack.
At this time, computers were large, expensive machines exclusively used by military scientists and university staff.
Elliott/NRDC 401 Computer MkI, c.1953. The Elliott-NRDC 401 was one of the first electronic computers, developed by British electrical company Elliott Brothers in 1952 when machines of this type could span 4 metres in length and weigh over a ton.
Science Museum Group Collection
More informationabout Elliott/NRDC 401 Computer MkI, c.1953. The Elliott-NRDC 401 was one of the first electronic computers, developed by British electrical company Elliott Brothers in 1952 when machines of this type could span 4 metres in length and weigh over a ton.
These machines were powerful but limited in numbers, and researchers grew increasingly frustrated: they required access to the technology, but had to travel great distances to use it.
To solve this problem, researchers started ‘time-sharing’. This meant that users could simultaneously access a mainframe computer through a series of terminals, although individually they had only a fraction of the computer’s actual power at their command.
The difficulty of using such systems led various scientists, engineers and organisations to research the possibility of a large-scale computer network.
WHO INVENTED THE INTERNET?
No one person invented the internet. When networking technology was first developed, a number of scientists and engineers brought their research together to create the ARPANET. Later, other inventors’ creations paved the way for the web as we know it today.
• PAUL BARAN (1926–2011)
An engineer whose work overlapped with ARPA’s research. In 1959 he joined an American think tank, the RAND Corporation, and was asked to research how the US Air Force could keep control of its fleet if a nuclear attack ever happened. In 1964 Baran proposed a communication network with no central command point. If one point was destroyed, all surviving points would still be able to communicate with each other. He called this a distributed network.
• LAWRENCE ROBERTS (1937–2018)
Chief scientist at ARPA, responsible for developing computer networks. Paul Baran’s idea appealed to Roberts, and he began to work on the creation of a distributed network.
• LEONARD KLEINROCK (1934–)
An American scientist who worked towards the creation of a distributed network alongside Lawrence Roberts.
• DONALD DAVIES (1924–2000)
A British scientist who, at the same time as Roberts and Kleinrock, was developing similar technology at the National Physical Laboratory in Middlesex.
• BOB KAHN (1938–) AND VINT CERF (1943–)
American computer scientists who developed TCP/IP, the set of protocols that governs how data moves through a network. This helped the ARPANET evolve into the internet we use today. Vint Cerf is credited with the first written use of the word ‘internet’.
When asked to explain my role in the creation of the internet, I generally use the example of a city. I helped to build the roads—the infrastructure that gets things from point A to point B.
—Vint Cerf, 2007
• PAUL MOCKAPETRIS (1948–) AND JON POSTEL (1943–98)
Inventors of DNS, the ‘phone book of the internet’.
• TIM BERNERS-LEE (1955–)
Creator of the World Wide Web who developed many of the principles we still use today, such as HTML, HTTP, URLs and web browsers.
There was no “Eureka!” moment. It was not like the legendary apple falling on Newton’s head to demonstrate the concept of gravity. Inventing the World Wide Web involved my growing realisation that there was a power in arranging ideas in an unconstrained, weblike way. And that awareness came to me through precisely that kind of process. The Web arose as the answer to an open challenge, through the swirling together of influences, ideas, and realisations from many sides.
—Tim Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 1999
• MARC ANDREESSEN (1971–)
Inventor of Mosaic, the first widely-used web browser.
THE FIRST USE OF A COMPUTER NETWORK
In 1965, Lawrence Roberts made two separate computers in different places ‘talk’ to each other for the first time. This experimental link used a telephone line with an acoustically coupled modem, and transferred digital data using packets.
When the first packet-switching network was developed, Leonard Kleinrock was the first person to use it to send a message. He used a computer at UCLA to send a message to a computer at Stanford. Kleinrock tried to type ‘login’ but the system crashed after the letters ‘L’ and ‘O’ had appeared on the Stanford monitor.
A second attempt proved successful and more messages were exchanged between the two sites. The ARPANET was born.
THE LIFE AND DEATH OF THE ARPANET
President Dwight D. Eisenhower formed the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1958, bringing together some of the best scientific minds in the country. Their aim was to help American military technology stay ahead of its enemies and prevent surprises, such as the launch of the satellite Sputnik 1, happening again. Among ARPA’s projects was a remit to test the feasibility of a large-scale computer network.
Lawrence Roberts was responsible for developing computer networks at ARPA, working with scientist Leonard Kleinrock. Roberts was the first person to connect two computers. When the first packet-switching network was developed in 1969, Kleinrock successfully used it to send messages to another site, and the ARPA Network—or ARPANET—was born.
Once ARPANET was up and running, it quickly expanded. By 1973, 30 academic, military and research institutions had joined the network, connecting locations including Hawaii, Norway and the UK.
As ARPANET grew, a set of rules for handling data packets needed to be put in place. In 1974, computer scientists Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf invented a new method called transmission-control protocol, popularly known as TCP/IP, which essentially allowed computers to speak the same language.
After the introduction of TCP/IP, ARPANET quickly grew to become a global interconnected network of networks, or ‘Internet’.
The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990.
WHAT IS PACKET SWITCHING?
‘Packet switching’ is a method of splitting and sending data. A computer file is effectively broken up into thousands of small segments called ‘packets’—each typically around 1500 bytes—distributed across a network, and then reordered back into a single file at their destination. The packet switching method is very reliable and allows data to be sent securely, even over damaged networks; it also uses bandwidth very efficiently and doesn’t need a single dedicated link, like a telephone call does.
The world’s first packet-switching computer network was produced in 1969. Computers at four American universities were connected using separate minicomputers known as ‘Interface Message Processors’ or ‘IMPs’. The IMPs acted as gateways for the packets and have since evolved into what we now call ‘routers’.
Packet switching is the basis on which the internet still works today.
WHAT IS TCP/IP?
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The term is used to describe a set of protocols that govern how data moves through a network.
After the creation of ARPANET, more networks of computers began to join the network, and the need arose for an agreed set of rules for handling data. In 1974 two American computer scientists, Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf, proposed a new method that involved sending data packets in a digital envelope or ‘datagram’. The address on the datagram can be read by any computer, but only the final host machine can open the envelope and read the message inside.
Kahn and Cerf called this method transmission-control protocol (TCP). TCP allowed computers to speak the same language, and it helped the ARPANET to grow into a global interconnected network of networks, an example of ‘internetworking’—internet for short.
IP stands for Internet Protocol and, when combined with TCP, helps internet traffic find its destination. Every device connected to the internet is given a unique IP number. Known as an IP address, the number can be used to find the location of any internet-connected device in the world.
WHAT IS DNS?
DNS stands for Domain Name System. It is the internet’s equivalent of a phone book, and converts hard-to-remember IP addresses into simple names.
In the early 1980s, cheaper technology and the appearance of desktop computers allowed the rapid development of local area networks (LANs). An increase in the amount of computers on the network made it difficult to keep track of all the different IP addresses.
This problem was solved by the introduction of the Domain Name System (DNS) in 1983. DNS was invented by Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel at the University of Southern California. It was one of the innovations that paved the way for the World Wide Web.
THE BEGINNINGS OF EMAIL
Email was a rapid—but unintended—consequence of the growth of ARPANET. As the network increased in popularity and scope, users quickly realised the potential of the network as a tool for sending messages between different ARPANET computers.
Ray Tomlinson, an American computer programmer, is responsible for electronic mail as we know it today. He introduced the idea that the destination of a message should be indicated using the @ symbol, which was first used to distinguish between the individual user’s name and that of their computer (i.e. user@computer). When DNS was introduced, this was extended to user@host.domain.
Early email users sent personal messages and began mailing lists on specific topics. One of the first big mailing lists was ‘SF-LOVERS’ for science fiction fans.
The development of email showed how the network had transformed. Rather than a way of accessing expensive computing power, it had started to become a place to communicate, gossip and make friends.
EARLY HOME COMPUTERS
From the 1970s onwards, the home computer industry grew exponentially. The uptake of home computers was not necessarily driven by users’ needs or a computer’s functionality; early machines could actually do relatively little. The appeal to the consumer was the idea of becoming part of the ‘Information Revolution’. Computers were embedded with the rhetoric of the future and learning, but in most cases this meant learning to program so that people could actually make the technology do something, such as play games.
Apple I personal computer, 1976–79
Science Museum Group Collection
Tandy Radio Shack TRS 80 I personal computer, 1978–80
Science Museum Group Collection
Commodore PET 2001-8-BS personal computer, 1977
Science Museum Group Collection
Apple II computer monitor, 1980–90
Science Museum Group Collection
Sinclair ZX 81 microcomputer, 1981–85
Science Museum Group Collection
Osborne 1 Portable Computer, 1981
Science Museum Group Collection
IBM 5150 personal computer, 1983
Science Museum Group Collection
BBC Microcomputer System, 1981
Science Museum Group Collection
Commodore 64 microcomputer, 1982–85
Science Museum Group Collection
Sinclair ZX Spectrum microcomputer, 1982–85
Science Museum Group Collection
Apple Macintosh personal computer, 1984
Science Museum Group Collection
Amstrad Personal Word Processor with monitor, printer, documentation and software, 1988
Science Museum Group Collection
THE GROWTH OF THE INTERNET, 1985–95
The invention of DNS, the common use of TCP/IP and the popularity of email caused an explosion of activity on the internet. Between 1986 and 1987, the network grew from 2,000 hosts to 30,000. People were now using the internet to send messages to each other, read news and swap files. However, advanced knowledge of computing was still needed to dial in to the system and use it effectively, and there was still no agreement on the way that documents on the network were formatted.
The internet needed to be easier to use. An answer to the problem appeared in 1989 when a British computer scientist named Tim Berners-Lee submitted a proposal to his employer, CERN, the international particle-research laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. Berners-Lee proposed a new way of structuring and linking all the information available on CERN’s computer network that made it quick and easy to access. His concept for a ‘web of information’ would ultimately become the World Wide Web.
The launch of the Mosaic browser in 1993 opened up the web to a new audience of non-academics, and people started to discover how easy it was to create their own HTML web pages. Consequently, the number of websites grew from 130 in 1993 to over 100,000 at the start of 1996.
By 1995 the internet and the World Wide Web were established phenomena: Netscape Navigator, which was the most popular browser at the time, had around 10 million global users.
HOW IS THE WORLD WIDE WEB DIFFERENT FROM THE INTERNET?
The terms ‘World Wide Web’ and ‘internet’ are often confused. The internet is the networking infrastructure that connects devices together, while the World Wide Web is a way of accessing information through the medium of the internet.
Tim Berners-Lee first proposed the idea of a ‘web of information’ in 1989. It relied on ‘hyperlinks’ to connect documents together. Written in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), a hyperlink can point to any other HTML page or file that sits on top of the internet.
In 1990, Berners-Lee developed Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and designed the Universal Resource Identifier (URI) system. HTTP is the language computers use to communicate HTML documents over the internet, and the URI, also known as a URL, provides a unique address where the pages can be easily found.
Berners-Lee also created a piece of software that could present HTML documents in an easy-to-read format. He called this ‘browser’ the ‘WorldWideWeb’.
Birthplace of the Web (the computer that Tim Berners-Lee used to invent the World Wide Web)
On 6 August 1991 the code to create more web pages and the software to view them was made freely available on the internet. Computer enthusiasts around the world began setting up their own websites. Berners-Lee’s vision of a free, global and shared information space began to take shape.
The dream behind the Web is of a common information space in which we communicate by sharing information. Its universality is essential: the fact that a hypertext link can point to anything, be it personal, local or global, be it draft or highly polished.
Tim Berners-Lee (1998)
THE INTRODUCTION OF WEB BROWSERS
Tim Berners-Lee was the first to create a piece of software that could present HTML documents in an easy-to-read format. He called this ‘browser’ the ‘WorldWideWeb’. However, this original application had limited use as it could only be used on advanced NeXT machines. A simplified version that could run on any computer was created by Nicola Pellow, a maths student who worked alongside Berners-Lee at CERN.
In 1993, Marc Andreessen, an American student in Illinois, launched a new browser called Mosaic. Created at the National Center for Super-computing Applications (NCSA), Mosaic was easy to download and install, worked on many different computers and provided simple point-and-click access to the World Wide Web. Mosaic was also the first browser to display images next to text, rather than in a separate window.
Mosaic’s simplicity opened the web up to a new audience, and caused an explosion of activity on the internet, with the number of websites growing from 130 in 1993 to over 100,000 at the start of 1996.
In 1994 Andreesen formed Netscape Communications with entrepreneur Jim Clark. They led the company to create Netscape Navigator, a widely used internet browser that at the time was faster and more sophisticated than any of the competition. By 1995, Navigator had around 10 million global users.
EARLY ECOMMERCE AND THE ‘DOTCOM BUBBLE’
The enormous excitement surrounding the internet led to a massive boom in new technology shares between 1998 and 2000. This became known as the ‘dotcom bubble’.
The claim was that world industry was experiencing a ‘new economic paradigm’, the likes of which had never been experienced before. Investors in the stock market began to believe the hype and threw themselves into a frenzy of activity. The internet was thought to be central to economic growth, while share prices implied that new online companies carried the seeds for expansion. This led in turn to a feverish level of investment and unrealistic expectations about rates of return.
We have entered a period of sustained growth that could eventually double the world’s economy every dozen years and bring increasing prosperity for—quite literally—billions of people on the planet. We are riding the early waves of a 25-year run of a greatly expanding economy that will do much to solve seemingly intractable problems like poverty and to ease tensions throughout the world.
—Peter Schwartz and Peter Leyden, Wired, July 1997
Venture capitalists flourished and many companies were founded on dubious business plans. The most notorious of these was the high fashion online retailer Boo.com, which spent its way through $200 million, only to collapse within six months of its website going live.
However, despite their failure, such businesses helped cause a fundamental transformation and left an important legacy. Many investors lost money, but they also helped to finance the new system and lay the groundwork for future success in ecommerce.
FURTHER READING
ONLINE
Brief History of the Internet, Internet Society
Internet History 1962 to 1992, Computer History Museum
Internet Pioneers, ibiblio
Tim Berners-Lee biography, World Wide Web Consortium
The World Wide Web: A global information space, Science Museum
BOOKS
John Naughton, A Brief History of the Future: The Origins of the Internet, 1999
Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet, 1996
Tim Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 1999
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Document (3)
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SIDEHUSTLES: THE NEW GENERATION OF INVENTORS
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The History Of Inventions: From the First Invention to Now
Invention ideas are innovative thoughts that permeate our minds and generate a desire to solve small and large scale problems. Above all, the true virtue of inventing is within our ability to harness our creativity and apply its application to real-world solutions. For many inventors, the freedom that is consistently present throughout the inventing process is where the true satisfaction transpires. There are no rules of engagement while inventing, and for many inventors, no monetary value can be placed on the joy and purpose of inventing, nor does inventing discriminate. No matter where you live or who you are, we all possess the ability to invent and inspire change.
Some may think only certain people have the characteristics of an inventor. They feel inventing is solely reserved for tinkerers, scientists, engineers and makers, but as you’ll learn, there is no specific person or personality who seamlessly fits the inventing mold (no pun intended.) An “ah-ha” moment can strike at any moment. Being able to recognize the value in discovering new ways of thinking or doing, and understanding that genius can strike at the most inopportune times is critical to the inventing journey.
It Takes a Village
Unexpected inventions created by uncommon inventors have been shaping the world for centuries. Nitrous oxide (N20), which is used as anesthesia, was discovered accidentally in the 1840’s, but not before Joseph Priestley, an English scientist and Humphry Davy, of the Pneumatic Institute in Bristol, England, experimented with their adaptation of the gas.
N20 was originally used as a preserving agent by Priestley in the 1700’s, and tested by Davy in the 1840’s. The true value of N20 was not discovered until 1844. Around this time Gardner Quincy Colton, a medical school dropout, traveled around the country participating in various nitrous oxide exhibits. During a demonstration for dentists in Hartford, Connecticut, Colton asked for volunteers from the audience, asking they inhale the gas. During this defining moment for N20 and Colton, Samuel Cooley ,an audience volunteer, injured his leg during the N20 demonstration. Horace Wells, a local dentist in the audience, experienced his “ah-ha” moment as he watched Cooley painlessly strut back to his seat. Right there, at that moment, Doctor Horace Wells, a local dentist, began to formulate a theory that nitrous oxide could be used as a painkiller and/or as an anesthesia. You may know it today as “laughing gas.”
In the end, the innovation of N20 as an anesthesia can be attributed to many people, including a scientist, two doctors, a medical school dropout, and even a disoriented volunteer at a medical trade show. Inventing happens when you least expect it, and often out of necessity for innovation.
The Importance of Inventions
Inventions change lives and move the human race forward. One of the most important things that inventions do is to give birth to entirely new fields of study.
Alexander Graham Bell would be in awe of our modern communication systems that all originated with his invention of the telephone. Inventors use their skills, techniques, and creativity to bring to life new products and concepts that the masses had not even considered. Breakthroughs lead to more breakthroughs and before you know a brand new field is off and running.
At Derfoufi Foundation, we know that invention fuels the United Kingdom rive and keeps us leading the world with our ingenuity and hard work. Our quality of life has been affected greatly by inventions. What would the world look like now without inventions such as penicillin, robotic surgery, and the personal computer, or something as ordinary as toilet paper, invented in China, 589 AD? Where would we all be without toilet paper?
Have you ever had a child ask you a simple question such as “Where did forks come from?” Most people rack their brains for an answer and simply reply: “I don’t know.” The answer is in the history of invention. So many things in modern life seem to have always been there, but, of course, that is not so. The history of an invention is often extraordinary; more extraordinary than the invention itself.
What was the First Invention?
what was the first invention?
Archaeologists Sonia Harmand and Jason Lewis of Stony Brook University examine the oldest stone tools in the world, discovered at a site called Lomekwi 3 in Kenya. Image: MPK-WTAP Image Source: https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/.../archaeologists.../
As early as the Paleolithic period, mankind has been inventing and improving. Archaeologists have discovered stone tools in modern-day Kenya believed to have been used about three million years ago. Thousands of years ago, boats were first created. 200 a thousand years ago, glue was discovered in Italy, while clothing was first invented between 83 and 170 thousand years ago. In the Democratic Republican of the Congo, harpoons were used 90 thousand years ago. Another seriously life-changing invention for early mankind.
77 thousand years ago, bedding was invented somewhere in South Africa. This might be considered a relatively simple invention, but a good night’s sleep can be life-changing. A rested mind and body can meet more challenges and discover more inventions.
In the Neolithic period, around 3000 BC, papyrus was invented in Egypt. History and communication could now be shared and saved more effectively. About 1000 years later, , somewhere in Ancient Egypt, glass was first invented. Think about your life and how many times you see glass in one day!
In the third century BC, the water wheel was invented and most likely changed the way many people did their trades. Paintings of men using wheelbarrows have been found in tombs in Sichuan, China; the paintings dated back to 118 ADA wheelbarrow would have significantly increased productivity for laborers.
In the 9th century, during the Tang dynasty, gunpowder was invented and would change the course of history. Many weapons were invented in the 13th and 14th centuries. The less contentious fork, however, is thought to have been invented in the Eastern Roman Empire of Byzantium during the 4th century AD.
Great Inventions
Throughout history a multitude of truly great creations have given way to exciting new opportunities. Take, for example, the printing press in 1440, invented by a man named Johannes Gutenberg. This revolutionized the way people communicated, got their news, and shared their opinions to the masses.
Have you heard of The Spinning Jenny? It’s not a modern dance move, but the first invention to improve the spinning wheel. James Hargreaves worked as a weaver throughout his life, and as he worked he began to formulate a plan to make his time and talents more productive. The Spinning Jenny is capable of spinning with more than one spindle at a time. An operator could spin eight threads at once by turning one wheel. Imagine how your life would be if you were 800% more efficient.
And the fantastic invention of the telephone back in 1876 deserves another mention. It set off a chain reaction of improving communication that still exists today. Just look at the timeline of the new invention known as “the phone.”
In 1903, came a fantastic invention that would open up the world to its citizens– the airplane. Humans could fly.
Great Inventors
Thomas Edison Great Inventor We wouldn’t have all of these wonderful inventions without the brilliant and creative inventors who dreamed them. And it’s worth remembering that inventors didn’t necessarily work in complete isolation or solitary confinement. Thomas Edison, the fantastic inventor who created the light bulb, competed with Nikolas Tesla to distribute electricity to power the world. It was a hard-fought competition, later named “The War of the Currents.” To add to the intensity, Edison was Tesla’s former boss. Edison brought his direct-current (DC) idea and Tesla countered with his alternating-current (AC). Who was the better inventor? This is the subject of much heated debate between scientists even today.
Leonardo DaVinci’s inventions – as well as his art – have been an incredible legacy. An Italian inventor, DaVinci is known for a plethora of ideas, including a parachute and an armored car.
One of the most remarkable inventions attributed to DaVinci is a machine simply called the “Flying Machine.” DaVinci loved aviation and the possibilities man being able to soar like a bird could open up for mankind. The Flying Machine had a wingspan of 33 feet. Scientists now say that while the invention would have flown, it did not contain enough power to take off.
When it comes to productivity, there are perhaps no more famous inventors than Henry Ford and Steve Jobs. Henry Ford created the assembly line after realizing that there had to be a more efficient way to put together a product. His idea changed lives for decades to come, inspiring generations. When it comes to communications, you have to look to Steve Jobs. He started Apple Computer in 1976 at age 21. He was instrumental in creating smaller and smaller computers and giving people access to technology at their fingertips.
Traits of a Successful Inventor
traits of a successful inventor
An inventor needs to be a visionary; to imagine, create, and think-through ideas that have not yet been invented. He or she must generate a brand new idea or an improvement of an old concept, often by seeing an opportunity or a need, and a possibility.
An inventor needs to have entrepreneurial tendencies; the drive to get your product out to the public. You will most likely be willing to tweak your product until it is perfect, whether this takes weeks, months, years, or a lifetime.
You need to be a problem solver. Once a problem is identified, the problem-solver is someone with tenacity, knowledge, and the ability to think outside the box. Often, solving a problem involves thinking simply or thinking small. Innovative solutions can be elegant or even seem obvious in hindsight. A solution doesn’t need to be complicated to change the world.
It may help to be a tinkerer. A tinkerer is constantly moving things, taking them apart, and rearranging things to look for flaws or improvements that can be made.
The Modern Invention Process
At Davison, we believe that anyone can be an inventor. A stay-at-home mom is likely to be a great problem solver. Mechanics often like to tinker. There is creativity in everyone and the drive to succeed is innate; you just have to let it out. If you have all four traits of a successful inventor, that is particularly exciting; you could be well on your way to discovering the thrill of invention.
The Early Invention Process was pretty simple. See a need, fill a need. See a problem, solve a problem. In 1986, the creator of Davison, inventor George Davison, had a great idea, but someone beat him to it. Why? They had more resources.
This failure led to a unique light bulb moment for Davison. Why didn’t everyone have access to these same resources?
For two decades, he tried and failed, and tried again until he had perfected his new idea; a better invention method.
People may have thought he was wasting his time. Most early inventors were thought to be a bit mad, trying to do something that no one else had even contemplated. Could it be, however, that they were merely exhibiting genius?
Women began to explore the invention process later than men. Did they wait longer or did it take longer to get accepted? If history is any indication, it took longer for women to be taken seriously.
Today, inventions tend to be a bit different. There are always new ideas, but invention now tends to focus on how to do something better. The world already has a lightbulb, but today’s inventors look for ways to improve the lightbulb. And they have. Many times over.
As life changes, new problems and needs always emerge. Older problems can sometimes make a reappearance. Modern inventors work to tackle these new problems and needs while working to create better solutions to old problems. It is no longer just geniuses and “mad men” that create. Anyone can do it.
If you have an idea – whether it’s an innovative fashion accessory, a toy, a solution to a practical issue, or an improvement of an existing solution – now is the time to submit your invention, before someone else does.
JUST INVENT SIDEHUSTLES NEW GENERATION OF INVENTORS
We Finish As We Started Arriving Where We Started The Invention of The Wheel : Internet
Let’s take a look at modern invention process:
Do you see a need? Do you see a problem? Do you have an outrageous idea? Perhaps you have come up with a simple idea that you cannot believe no one else has thought of yet? You too can embark on an amazing adventure. Solve a need, fix a problem, revolutionize an industry. You can delight the world. You can change the world.
You can make a difference.
HOW
SELF DETERMINATION
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Document (4)
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DETERMINATION
WE am Determined to Answer The Question of Self Determination
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To Determine Oneself to Deter from The Evil Other The Imagined Other
Devine or Devilish or Just Fiendishly Evil – Who Are THEY? Who Are YOU?
That’s Self Determination – Self Determining Me- Self Determining You
Once We Have Self Determined Then ONLY THEN Are WE FREE
TO BECOME WHO ‘WE REALLY ARE’ – Self Determining Me- Self Determining You
Knowing Me Knowing You It’s the Best I Could Do –
“Who’s Line is It Anyway?
We Have Put Together a Self Determination Theory Essay for You All
Self-Determination Theory of Motivation Why Intrinsic Motivation Matters
1st What is Self-Determination Theory? Definition and Examples
You may be familiar with “self-determination” in the context of foundational government documents and speeches from people long-dead.
Traditionally, self-determination has been more used in this diplomatic and political context to describe the process a country undergoes to assert its independence.
However, self-determination also has a more personal and psychology-relevant meaning today: the ability or process of making one’s own choices and controlling one’s own life.
Self-determination is a vital piece of psychological well-being; as you may expect, people like to feel control of their own lives.
In addition to this idea of controlling one’s own destiny, the theory of self-determination is relevant to anyone hoping to guide their live more.
Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free. These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients create actionable goals and master techniques to create lasting behavior change.
This Article Contains:
What is the Meaning of Self-Determination Theory?
Self-Determination Theory and Goals
Self-Determination Theory in (Special) Education and Disability
Self-Determination Theory and Work Motivation
Self-Determination Theory in Social Work
Self-Determination Theory in Sports
Self-Determination Theory in Nursing and Healthcare
How to Promote and Encourage Self-Determination Skills
Recommended Books
11 Quotes on Self-Determination
A Take-Home Message
References
What is the Meaning of Self-Determination Theory?
Self-Determination Theory, or SDT, links personality, human motivation, and optimal functioning. It posits that there are two main types of motivation—intrinsic and extrinsic—and that both are powerful forces in shaping who we are and how we behave (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
It is a theory that grew out of researchers Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan’s work on motivation in the 1970s and 1980s. Although it has grown and expanded since then, the basic tenets of the theory come from Deci and Ryan’s seminal 1985 book on the topic.
Relevant reading: Intrinsic Coaching: What Is It and How to Apply It?
Deci and Ryan’s Theory of Motivation (1985)
According to Deci and Ryan, extrinsic motivation is a drive to behave in certain ways based on external sources and it results in external rewards (1985). Such sources include grading systems, employee evaluations, awards and accolades, and the respect and admiration of others.
On the other hand, intrinsic motivation comes from within. There are internal drives that inspire us to behave in certain ways, including our core values, our interests, and our personal sense of morality.
It might seem like intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are diametrically opposed—with intrinsic driving behavior in keeping with our “ideal self” and extrinsic leading us to conform with the standards of others—but there is another important distinction in the types of motivation. SDT differentiates between autonomous motivation and controlled motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2008).
Autonomous motivation includes motivation that comes from internal sources and includes motivation from extrinsic sources for individuals who identify with an activity’s value and how it aligns with their sense of self. Controlled motivation is comprised of external regulation—a type of motivation where an individual acts out of the desire for external rewards or fear of punishment.
On the other hand, introjected regulation is motivation from “partially internalized activities and values” such as avoiding shame, seeking approval, and protecting the ego.
When an individual is driven by autonomous motivation, they may feel self-directed and autonomous; when the individual is driven by controlled motivation, they may feel pressure to behave in a certain way, and thus, experience little to no autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2008).
The Self-Determination Model, Scale, and Continuum
We are complex beings who are rarely driven by only one type of motivation. Different goals, desires, and ideas inform us what we want and need. Thus, it is useful to think of motivation on a continuum ranging from “non-self-determined to self-determined.”
Self Determination Theory Diagram
At the left end of the spectrum, we have a motivation, in which an individual is completely non-autonomous, has no drive to speak of, and is struggling to have any of their needs met. In the middle, we have several levels of extrinsic motivation.
One step to the right of amotivation is external regulation, in which motivation is exclusively external and regulated by compliance, conformity, and external rewards and punishments.
The next level of extrinsic motivation is termed introjected regulation, in which the motivation is somewhat external and is driven by self-control, efforts to protect the ego, and internal rewards and punishments.
In identified regulation, the motivation is somewhat internal and based on conscious values and that which is personally important to the individual.
The final step of extrinsic motivation is integrated regulation, in which intrinsic sources and the desire to be self-aware are guiding an individual’s behavior.
The right end of the continuum shows an individual entirely motivated by intrinsic sources. In intrinsic regulation, the individual is self-motivated and self-determined, and driven by interest, enjoyment, and the satisfaction inherent in the behavior or activity he or she is engaging in.
Although self-determination is generally the goal for individuals, we can’t help but be motivated by external sources—and that’s not necessarily a bad thing. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are highly influential determinants of our behavior, and both drive us to meet the three basic needs identified by the SDT model:
self-determination theory three needs
Autonomy: people have a need to feel that they are the masters of their own destiny and that they have at least some control over their lives; most importantly, people have a need to feel that they are in control of their own behavior.
Competence: another need concerns our achievements, knowledge, and skills; people have a need to build their competence and develop mastery over tasks that are important to them.
Relatedness (also called Connection): people need to have a sense of belonging and connectedness with others; each of us needs other people to some degree (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
According to the developers of SDT, Deci and Richard M. Ryan, individual differences in personality result from the varying degrees to which each need has been satisfied—or thwarted (2008). The two main aspects on which individuals differ include causality orientations and aspirations or life goals.
Causality orientations refer to how people adapt and orient themselves to their environment and their degree of self-determination in general, across many different contexts. The three causality orientations are:
Autonomous: all three basic needs are satisfied.
Controlled: competence and relatedness are somewhat satisfied but autonomy is not.
Impersonal: none of the three needs are satisfied.
Aspirations or life goals are what people use to guide their own behavior. They generally fall into one of the two categories of motivation mentioned earlier: intrinsic or extrinsic. Deci and Ryan provide affiliation, generativity, and personal development as examples of intrinsic life goals, while they list wealth, fame, and attractiveness as examples of extrinsic life goals (2008).
Aspirations and life goals drive us, but they are considered learned desires instead of basic needs like autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
SDT presents two sub-theories for a more nuanced understanding of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. These sub-theories are Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) and Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) which help explain intrinsic motivation with regards to its social factors and the various degrees of contextual factors that influence extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
Let’s take a deeper look:
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
According to CET intrinsic motivation can be facilitating or undermining, depending on the social and environmental factors in play. Referring to the Needs Theory, Deci & Ryan (1985,2000) argue that interpersonal events, rewards, communication and feedback that gear towards feelings of competence when performing an activity will enhance intrinsic motivation for that particular activity.
However, this level of intrinsic motivation is not attained if the individual doesn’t feel that the performance itself is self-determined or that they had the autonomous choice to perform this activity.
So, for a high level of intrinsic motivation two psychological needs have to be fulfilled:
The first is competence so that the activity results in feelings of self-development and efficacy.
The second is the need for autonomy that the performance of the chosen activity was self-initiated or self-determined.
Thus for CET theory to hold true, motivation needs to be intrinsic and have an appeal to the individual. It also implies that intrinsic motivation will be enhanced or undermined depending on whether the needs for autonomy and competence are supported or thwarted respectively.
It is believed that the use of the needs for autonomy and competence are linked to our motivations. Deci conducted a study on the effects of extrinsic rewards on people’s intrinsic motivation.
Results showed that when people received extrinsic rewards (e.g., money) for doing something, eventually they were less interested and less likely to do it later, compared to people who did the same activity without receiving the reward.
The results were interpreted as the participants’ behavior, which was initially intrinsically motivated, became controlled by the rewards which lead to an undermined sense of autonomy. This concept is beautifully explained in this video by RSA Animate.
Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)
The second sub-theory is Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) that argues that extrinsic motivation depends on the extent to which autonomy is present.
In other words, extrinsic motivation varies according to the internalization and integration of the value of the activity. Internalization is how well the value of an activity is felt while integration explains the process of individual transformation from external regulation to their own self-regulated version (Ryan & Deci,2000).
For instance, school assignments are externally regulated activities. Internalization here could be if the child sees the value and importance of the assignment; integration in this situation is the degree to which the child perceives performing the assignment as their own choice.
The OIT thus offers us a greater perspective on the different levels of extrinsic motivation that exist and the processes of internalization and integration, which could eventually result in the autonomous choice of performing the activity for its intrinsic perceived joy and value.
Examples of SDT in Psychology
To understand self-determination theory, it can be useful to see some examples of people who are high in self-determination, or thinking and acting in an autonomous and intrinsically motivated fashion.
The best description of a self-determined individual is someone who:
Believes she is in control of her own life.
Takes responsibility for her own behavior (taking credit and blame when either is warranted).
Is self-motivated instead of driven by others’ standards or external sources.
Determines her actions based on her own internal values and goals.
For example, imagine a high school student who fails an important test. If she is high in self-determination—feels responsible for her actions, believes she is in control of her behavior, etc.—she might tell her parents that she could have spent more time studying and that she plans to carve out some extra time to study.
Her plan of action would be the same whether her parents were upset or apathetic, because she herself is motivated by an internal desire to be competent and knowledgeable.
If this same student is low in self-determination—feels that she is not in control of her life and that she is a victim of circumstance—she might blame the teacher for giving a tough test that students were not ready for. She may blame her parents for not helping her study or her friends for distracting her.
If she does care about her grade, it is not due to an internal desire to do well, but a desire to win her parents’ approval, or perhaps bolster her self-image by getting the best grade in the class or impressing her teacher with her knowledge.
The man who decides to start a new hobby because he thinks he’ll enjoy it is exhibiting self-determination, while the man who begins a new hobby because it seems prestigious or impressive, is not.
Similarly, the woman who blames all of her ex-lovers for ruining their relationships is not displaying self-determination; the woman who takes responsibility for her part in contributing to unhappy past relationships is showing self-determination.
You may have spotted the theme here: those who take responsibility for their actions and do things because they align with their own personal values and goals are self-determined. Those who blame others, see themselves as constant victims and do things solely for external approval or recognition, are not.
self-determination theory examples
Self-Determination Theory Questionnaires
Aspiration Index
This scale measures the extent to which seven broad goal domains motivate the individual, including wealth, fame, image, personal growth, relationships, community contribution, and health. Respondents rate the importance of each aspiration, their beliefs about the likelihood they will attain each, and the degree to which they have already attained each. You can find the complete packet for this scale here.
Basic Psychological Needs Scale (BPNS)
This scale was developed to assess the extent to which the individual feels each of the three basic needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—have been satisfied in his or her life. This scale has been developed for several contexts, like work and relationships, but there is a more general form as well. You can learn more about this scale or download a version for your own use here.
Christian Religious Internalization Scale (CRIS)
The CRIS, also known as the Religion Self-Regulation Questionnaire or SRQ-R, can determine the reasons why an individual engages in religious behavior. The scale is divided into two subscales: Introjected Regulation, representing the more externally motivating factors, and Identified Regulation, representing the more internally motivation factors.
General Causality Orientations Scale
The General Causality Orientations Scale, or GCOS, can determine the degree to which the respondent embodies the three orientations: the autonomy orientation, the controlled orientation, and the impersonal orientation. The GCOS presents vignettes, or descriptions of common social or achievement-oriented situations, and asks respondents to indicate how typical each of three responses is for them on a 7-point Likert scale.
Health-Care SDT Packet (HC-SDT)
The HC-SDT is comprised of three scales that measure self-regulation (SRQ), perceived competence (PCS), and perceived autonomy supportiveness of healthcare climate (HCCQ), three self-determination constructs related to health behaviors. The scales target four health behaviors: smoking cessation, diet improvement, exercising regularly and drinking responsibly. Click here to learn more about the HC-SDT.
Index of Autonomous Functioning (IAF)
The IAF measures trait autonomy based on three subscales: authorship/self-congruence, interest-taking, and low susceptibility to control. The first subscale assesses the degree to which the individual views his behavior as under his control and the consistency among his behaviors, attitudes, and traits.
The second assesses his ongoing insight into himself and his experiences in an open-minded manner, and the third assesses the absence of internal and external pressures as motivators for his behavior. You can download the scale at this link.
Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI)
This scale was developed for use in experiments, and measures the extent to which respondents found an activity interesting or enjoyable, their perceived competence at the task, the effort they put into the task, how valuable or useful they found it, how much tension or pressure they felt, and how much choice they felt they had while completing it.
Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)
The MAAS may be familiar to you if you’ve read any of our pieces on mindfulness. It provides a measure of “receptive awareness and attention to present-moment events and experience.” It consists of 15 items, all of which comprise a single factor. SDT co-developer Richard M. Ryan developed this scale with another colleague in 2003. Click here to learn more about the MAAS scale and see suggested reading on mindfulness.
Motivators’ Orientation
The Motivators’ Orientation set of questionnaires measures the extent to which an individual in a supervisory capacity tends to be autonomy-supportive versus controlling. There are two questionnaires designed for specific contexts: the Problems in Schools Questionnaire (PIS) is designed for teachers, while the Problems at Work Questionnaire (PAW) is designed for managers in a work environment.
Each questionnaire requires respondents to read eight vignettes and rate four behavioral options on appropriateness for the situation. The four options represent four tendencies: Highly Autonomy Supportive (HA), Moderately Autonomy Supportive (MA), Moderately Controlling (MC), and Highly Controlling, (HC). You can learn more about these scales here.
Motives for Physical Activity Measure (MPAM-R)
The MPAM-R assesses the strength of five different motivations for participating in a physical activity like team sports, aerobics, or weight lifting: (1) fitness, (2) appearance, (3) competence/challenge, (4) social, and (5) enjoyment. The results of this scale can reliably predict behavioral outcomes like attendance, persistence, and maintained participation, as well as constructs like mental health and well-being. You can find more information on this scale at this link.
Perceived Autonomy Support
This is a set of scales that measures the individual’s perceptions of the extent to which a particular social context is autonomy-supportive or controlling. It includes the aforementioned health care climate questionnaire (HCCQ) as well as scales on the learning climate (LCQ), the work climate (WCQ), the sports climate (SCQ), and the parental autonomy support climate (P-PASS).
Respondents rate the autonomy supportiveness of the context on a 7-point scale, with higher scores indicating greater autonomy support. There are two versions for each scale: a long, 15-item version and a short, 5-item version. Click here to learn more about these scales.
Perceived Choice and Awareness of Self Scale (formerly the Self-Determination Scale [SDS])
This scale, which was previously known as simply the Self-Determination Scale (SDS), measures individual differences in perceived choice, or the feeling that one has choices in how to behave, and awareness of self, or the awareness of one’s own feelings and sense of self. The PCASS is only 10 items long and is composed of two 5-item scales (one for each construct). Follow this link to learn more about the PCASS.
Perceived Competence Scale (PCS)
The PCS is a short questionnaire that measures perceived competence in a specific behavior or area. It is only 4 items long, and it is intended to be adapted for the specific behavior or area being studied. Click here to learn more about the PCS.
Perceptions of Parents
This scale for children was designed to measure how autonomy-supportive or controlling they perceive their parents to be. There are two versions of this scale: a 22-item version for children 8 years or older, and a 42-item version for college students. You can learn more about this scale and the two versions here.
Self-Regulation Questionnaires (SRQ)
The SRQ scales measure individual differences in regulation or motivation of behavior. There are seven self-regulation questionnaires listed on the website: the Academic Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-A) and the Prosocial Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-P), both of which are intended for children, and the Treatment Self-Regulation Questionnaire (TSRQ), the Learning Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-L), the Exercise Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-E), the Religion Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-R), and the Friendship Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-F), which are all intended for adults.
You can find these questionnaires at this link.
Subjective Vitality Scale (VS)
The Subjective Vitality Scale, or VS, assesses the extent to which an individual feels alive, alert, and energetic—a vital aspect of well-being. There are two versions, one of which considers individual differences (vitality as a trait or characteristic), while the other measures vitality as a more transitory experience (vitality as a state).
The items are generally the same, only the timeframe differs (long-term and stable for the trait version vs. short-term and fluctuating for the state version). The original scale consisted of 7 items, but a shorter, 6-item version has proven to be even more sound than the original. You can learn more about the scale here.
Treatment Motivation Questionnaire (TMQ)
Finally, the TMQ is used to assess motivation for receiving treatment. It measures the strength of four types of motivation on treatment attendance and compliance behaviors: intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, and external regulation. You can download the scale or learn more about it here.
If you’re interested in assessing more traits and behaviors, please see our piece on mindfulness scales and questionnaires.
Self-Determination Theory and Goals
SDT has a lot to say about goals and goal striving.
The theory proposes that not only is the content of our goals (i.e., what we strive for) important for our need satisfaction and well-being, the process of our goals (i.e., why we strive for them) is just as influential on our well-being.
The degree to which behavioral regulation of goal striving is autonomous (or self-directed) versus controlled is a significant predictor of well-being outcomes.
In other words, we are more satisfied and successful when we can pursue goals in “our own way” rather than according to a strict, external system of regulation. Even when pursuing extrinsic rewards like wealth or fame, we are more satisfied and self-actualized when we pursue them autonomously, for our own reasons and with our own methods (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
Further research on SDT and goals has confirmed the connection between success and autonomy and supported the idea that success is also more likely when our goals are intrinsic and intended to satisfy our basic needs. Success in goal-striving is more likely when we are supported by empathetic and supportive people, rather than controlling or directive people (Koestner & Hope, 2014).
Self-Determination Theory in (Special) Education and Disability
It’s easy to see how SDT applies to education: students are more likely to learn and succeed in school when they are intrinsically motivated by their need for competence than when they are extrinsically motivated by teachers, parents, or the grading system.
SDT is doubly important for children in special education and those with disabilities. These students are often struggling with meeting their need for autonomy, as many decisions are made for them and they may not have the physical or intellectual ability to be truly autonomous.
Their disability may interfere with their need for competence, as it can hamper their efforts to master tasks and develop their knowledge. Finally, those with disabilities—physical, mental, or both—often find it difficult to connect with their peers. All of these extra struggles explain why it’s vital for students with disabilities to have a sense of self-determination.
Although they may not be able to satisfy their needs in the most straightforward or common ways, special education students can gain a sense of self-determination in other ways. For example, research has suggested that programs designed to improve the following skills and abilities can boost a student’s self-determination:
Self-awareness
Decision-making
Goal-setting
Goal attainment
Communication and relationship skills
Ability to celebrate success and learn from mistakes
Reflection on experiences (Field & Hoffman, 1994).
Enhancing the self-determination of students with disabilities has been shown to result in many positive outcomes, including a greater likelihood of gainful employment and a higher chance of living independently in the community (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).
Self-Determination Theory and Work Motivation
Self-Determination Theory and Work MotivationSDT has also generated some important insights about work motivation.
While there are many theories about work motivation and engagement, SDT is unique in its focus on the “relative strength of autonomous versus controlled motivation, rather than on the total amount of motivation” (Gagné & Deci, 2005).
Although the overall amount of motivation is certainly a factor, it’s important not to lose sight of the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators; for example, SDT is correct in its assumption that extrinsic rewards are related to reduced intrinsic motivation.
There is also evidence for a positive relationship between a manager’s autonomy support and their employees’ work outcomes. A manager’s autonomy leads to greater levels of need satisfaction for their employees, which in turn boosts job satisfaction, performance evaluations, persistence, acceptance of organizational change, and psychological adjustment.
Finally, there is a link between managerial autonomy and subordinate autonomy, performance, and organizational commitment, as well as a link between transformational or visionary leadership and followers’ autonomous (vs. controlled) goals (Gagné & Deci, 2005).
Clearly, SDT has some vital applications in the workplace, namely:
Extrinsic rewards should be considered with caution; too few can lead to a sense that employees are not appreciated or fairly compensated and recognized, but too many can inhibit intrinsic motivation.
Managers should support their employees’ need for satisfaction, especially autonomy; this can lead to happier and more competent employees as well as better organizational outcomes.
When managers are themselves high in autonomy, their subordinates are likely to be high in autonomy as well, leading to better performance and higher organizational commitment.
Good leadership encourages employees to set their own, autonomously conceived and regulated goals, which are more motivating and more likely to end in success than goals assigned to them by management.
Self-Determination Theory in Social Work
SDT is a foundational idea in social work: the idea that every person has a right to determine his or her own direction and make her or her own decisions in life. Although every person has a right to self-determination, marginalized, disadvantaged, and disenfranchised people may struggle with finding their own self-determination (Furlong, 2003).
Hence, it is vital for those in the social work profession to incorporate the principle of self-determination into their work.
The National Association of Social Workers holds this principle as a central tenet to the profession:
“Social workers respect and promote the right of clients to self-determination and assist clients in their efforts to identify and clarify their goals. Social workers may limit clients’ right to self-determination when, in the social workers’ professional judgment, clients’ actions or potential actions pose a serious, foreseeable, and imminent risk to themselves or others.”
Guidelines related to self-determination require a constant commitment to allow clients to make their own decisions, with ample support and information from the social worker rather than direction and control. It also requires that a social worker be aware of their own values and beliefs to ensure that they are not influencing clients towards a direction they did not choose for themselves (Fanning, 2015).
It’s a fine line to walk between looking out for the client’s best interests and allowing them to find their own way, which is one reason why social work is a challenging and demanding profession!
Self-Determination Theory in Sports
self-determination theory sports SDT has also been fruitfully applied to research on sports participation and achievement.
Unsurprisingly, intrinsic motivation is a far more impactful driver of behavior in terms of goal attainment than extrinsic rewards, and in no context is this fact easier to see than in sports.
Research has shown that:
Those who are amotivated (not motivated by intrinsic or extrinsic factors) or motivated by external regulation and meeting external standards are more likely to drop out of sports teams or leagues.
Those who are amotivated or externally motivated are generally lower in need satisfaction, specifically the needs of relatedness and autonomy (Calvo, Cervelló, Jiménez, Iglesias, & Murcia, 2010).
Further, in work on SDT and general exercise or physical activity, findings have included:
Those who are autonomously motivated are more likely to adhere to exercise over time and enter the state of flow (a la Csikszentmihalyi’s theory of flow).
Those who are autonomously motivated have a higher perceived competence and psychological well-being.
Autonomous support from others encourages individuals’ autonomous motivation related to exercise.
An internal locus of causality (versus external) promotes greater success in exercise endeavors (Hagger, & Chatzisarantis, 2008).
As with self-determination in many other contexts, those with a high sense of it are more likely to stick with their goals and eventually achieve them.
Self-Determination Theory in Nursing and Healthcare
Likewise, self-determination theory can explain trends in nursing and healthcare. For example, intrinsic motivation and autonomy drive patient compliance with medical instructions, but motivation to comply with standards is also significant for patients (Kofi, 2017).
Another recent study provided support for the hypothesis that a health care practitioner’s autonomy support encourages patients to engage in healthier behavior, boosts their perceived competence in those behaviors, and can even enhance their sense of mindfulness in addition to helping them meet the three basic needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness; Martin, Byrd, Wooster, & Kulik, 2017).
Just as self-determination is vital for students in educational settings, it is vital for patients in healthcare settings. When patients feel they have little control over their lives and they are not supported in their decision-making by healthcare professionals, they will likely struggle to get their needs met and have worse health outcomes.
Healthcare professionals should keep these findings in mind when interacting with their patients if they have an interest in encouraging healthy behavior outside of the examination room.
How to Promote and Encourage Self-Determination Skills
It may be difficult to think about how self-determination skills can be taught or encouraged in others. This might feel like a trick question, since self-determination is, by definition, not directed by others!
However, there are some things you can do to help children and young adults develop self-determination.
Specifically, it can help to enhance and encourage their:
Self-awareness and self-knowledge
Goal-setting ability
Problem-solving skills
Decision-making skills
Ability to self-advocate
Ability to create action plans to achieve their goals
Self-regulation and self-management skills (Wehmeyer, 2002).
For some practical suggestions on how to go about encouraging self-determination, check out our Self-Determination Skills and Activities article.
Recommended Books
If you’re interested in learning more about SDT, you’re in luck! There are many resources out there that can help you become more familiar with this theory, including some great books. Some of the most popular and influential books on SDT include:
Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness by Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci (Amazon)
Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation by Edward L. Deci and Richard Flaste (Amazon)
Self-Determination Theory in the Clinic: Motivating Physical and Mental Health by Kennon M. Sheldon, Geoffrey Williams, and Thomas Joiner (Amazon)
Handbook of Self-Determination Research by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan (Amazon)
The Oxford Handbook of Work Engagement, Motivation, and Self-Determination Theory by Marylene Gagne (Amazon)
Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan (Amazon link)
The Theory of Self-Determination by Fernando R. Tesón (Amazon)
Self-Determination Theory in Practice: How to Create an Optimally Supportive Health Care Environment by Jennifer G. La Guardia (Amazon)
11 Quotes on Self-Determination
If you’re the type of person that loves a good quote, we’ve got some great ones related to self-determination for you. See if any resonate with your personal view on self-determination.
“Stay focused and stay determined. Don’t look to anyone else to be your determination—have self-determination. It will take you very far.”
Justice Smith
“My idea of feminism is self-determination, and it’s very open-ended: every woman has the right to become herself, and do whatever she needs to do.”
Ani DiFranco
“America was born out of a desire for self-determination, a longing for the human dignity that only independence can bring.”
Maurice Saatchi
“Equality and self-determination should never be divided in the name of religious or ideological fervor.”
Rita Dove
“Know what you want and reach out eagerly for it.”
Lailah Gifty Akita
“We each possess the capacity for self-development. We also possess the capacity for self-destruction. The path that we chose to take—to pursue lightness or darkness—is the story that we take to our graves.”
Kilroy J. Oldster
“We are condemned to be free people, liberated people who must make life-defining decisions. Freedom requires choices and all choices entail value decisions.”
Kilroy J. Oldster
“Above all, be the heroine of your life, not the victim.”
Nora Ephron
“Let every man be master of his time.”
William Shakespeare
“Self-determination is not a mere phrase. It is an imperative principle of action, which statesmen will henceforth ignore at their peril.”
Woodrow Wilson
“Control your own destiny or someone else will.”
Jack Welch
FINAL WORD
We hope you enjoyed this piece on Self-Determination Theory. It’s a great theory if you plan to have any career in the helping industry (e.g., counselor, coach, teacher, healthcare professional), and it’s also a great theory to understand regardless.
Although this theory has the impressive ability to predict outcomes of behavior based on motivations for that behavior (at least in part), the real value for the individual comes in the form of understanding the self better. When we know our core values and the intrinsic goals aligned with those values, we may be happier.
This method may even help people make better choices that satisfy their own needs rather than strive towards extrinsic goals.
If you take one thing away from the piece, let it be that you—like all people—are fully capable of making choices and finding your own way. As long as you pursue goals guided by your authentic values and desires, you have a great chance of success.
What do you think about self-determination theory? Do you think intrinsic motivation is always more effective than extrinsic motivation? Which do you find drives you more? Please let us know in the comments section below.
Thanks for reading!
INSPIRATIONAL MINDS
Yours Sincerely
Miss Laura Warren Director Self Determining ME
Mr Marouane Derfoufi Content Developer Self Determining YOU
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